Who were the Mughals? Descendants of two great lineages of rulers-Genghis Khan (died 1227), the Mongol ruler who ruled over parts of China and Central Asia from mother’s side-successors of Timur (died 1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq and modern-day Turkey from father’s side-Mughals did not like to be called Mughal or Mongol as Genghis Khan’s memory was associated with the massacre of innumerable people-it was also linked with the Uzbegs, their Mongol competitors-they were proud of their Timurid ancestry because their great ancestor had captured Delhi in 1398. Mughal Military Campaigns Babur- 1st Mughal emperor (1526- 1530)- succeeded the throne of Ferghana in 1494, when only 12 years old-forced…

Delhi first became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs, who were defeated by Chauhan (also called Chahamanas) of Ajmer. The transformation of Delhi into a capital that controlled a vast area of the subcontinent started with the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13th century. Rulers of Delhi Tomars Early 12th century 1165. Chauhans 1165-1192 Prithviraj Chauhan: 1175-1192 Under the Tomaras and Chauhans, Delhi became an important commercial centre. Slave Dynasty  1206-1290 In 1236, Razia, the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish, became the Sultan of Delhi. She was removed from the throne in 1240. Khilji Dynasty  1290-1320 External frontier was the next phase of…

Several major ruling dynasties emerged in different parts of the subcontinent between the seventh and twelfth centuries. The Emergence of New Dynasties By the 7th century, there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent. Existing kings often acknowledged them as their samantas or subordinates. They were expected to bring gifts for their kings or overlords and provide them with military support. The main ruling dynasties were Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas, Rashtrakutas and Chahamans in North India and the Chola, Pandyas and Chalukyas in South India. Administration in the Kingdoms The kings at apex adopted big titles like Maharaja-adhiraja. The kings shared power with their samanras, and with an…

New and Old Terminologies Hindustan  Term “Hindustan”, is known as “India,” the modern nation-state today. The term was first used in the 13th century by Minhaj-i-Siraj, a chronicler who wrote in Persian and contains the areas of Punjab, Haryana and the lands between the Ganga and Yamuna. The term was used in a political sense for lands that were a part of the dominions of the Delhi Sultan. Areas included in this term shifted with the extent of the Sultanate, but it never included South India. In early 16th century, Babur used Hindustan to describe the geography, the fauna and the culture of the inhabitants of the subcontinent, same as…

Pure Substances Many substances around us contain only one type of constituent particles. Elements and compounds are pure substances. Some of the pure substances are iron, copper, water, salt, etc. Impure Substances Substances containing more than one type of constituent particles are called impure substances. Some of the impure substances are pond water, milk, etc Impurities These are the unwanted particles present in a substance making it impure. Mixtures Substances which contain more than one component mixed in any ratio are called mixtures. For example, air is a mixture of many gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, dust particles, etc. Homogeneous Mixtures The mixtures in which the particles of the…

There is a vast variety of objects everywhere. All objects around us are made up of one or more materials. A thing can be made of different materials. Many things can be made from the same material. Classification The process of sorting and grouping things according to some basis is’called classification. Basis of grouping We can group materials on the basis of the similarities and differences in their properties. Each material has its own properties, that may differ from others. However, some properties may be common to one or more materials. Uses of a material Uses of a material depend on its properties and the purpose for which it has…

Fibres All cloth materials are made up of long, narrow, thin structures called fibres. Fibres are obtained from natural as well as man-made sources. Natural Sources Cotton, jute, silk, wool, etc., are obtained from natural sources- plants or animals. Man-made Sources Polyester, nylon, rayon etc., are man-made materials used for making clothes. Plant fibres All the plants have fibres in their body structure, e.g., cotton and mango have fibres on their seed, coconut on its fruit, jute in its stem and banana tree in its leaf. Animal fibres Important animal fibres are wool (hair of sheep) and silk (from silkworm). Cotton is the most important industrial crop. India was the…

Food: It is the group of edible substances which provide energy to the living beings and repair the old tissues and build the new tissues. Nutrition: The process of consuming nutrients required for the growth and development of our body and to obtain energy is known as nutrition. Our food contains three main substances called nutrients. These are fats, proteins and carbohydrates. In addition, our body requires water, salts (minerals), vitamins and fibres. Diet: It is the amount of food eaten by a person at a time. Malnutrition: If a person does not get adequate food, or if his/her diet does not contain all the nutrients, he or she becomes…

The component that we consume, which provides nourishment to the body, is called food. E.g., Rice, chapati, curry, fruits, vegetables, cheese, bread, milk, curd, butter, etc. Ingredients The components or materials required to prepare a food item are called as ingredients. E.g., different types of vegetables, spices are ingredients for sambar. Food Variety What is food? Why is it necessary to have food? What would happen if we do not eat food? Food is a nutritious substance, that we eat to grow and perform daily chores. For living entities, food is necessary to survive. It nourishes trillions of cells in our body, enables their smooth functioning, accelerates biological processes and…